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Last updated August 18, 2025

Space Debris: The Nightmare of Modern Satellites

Space debris orbiting Earth

Origin and nature of space debris

Space debris originates from defunct satellites, abandoned rocket stages, fragments from collisions, or explosions in orbit. More than 36,000 objects larger than 10 cm are currently being tracked. Their relative speed, which can reach \(v \approx 7.8 \, km/s\), gives these debris formidable kinetic energy during impacts.

Table of major space debris-generating events

Major space debris-generating events
EventYearAltitudeConsequences
Explosion of the Fengyun-1C satellite (Chinese anti-satellite test)2007865 kmCreation of over 3,000 tracked debris, still in orbit
Collision between Cosmos-2251 (Russia) and Iridium-33 (USA)2009790 kmFirst major collision between two active satellites, generating >2,000 fragments
Explosion of an Ariane 1 rocket stage (V16 mission)1986~600 kmSeveral hundred persistent debris, some still in orbit today
Indian anti-satellite test (Mission Shakti, Microsat-R)2019300 kmCreation of ~400 debris, critical for the International Space Station (ISS)
Deliberate destruction of the USA-193 satellite (Operation Burnt Frost)2008247 kmDebris quickly re-entered, but controversy over the militarization of space
Explosion of Pegasus-2 (American rocket stage)1996580 kmOne of the first major events, with fragments still in circulation
Fragmentation of the Russian satellite Cosmos-12751981975 kmFirst documented case of spontaneous breakup (faulty battery), 310+ debris

Sources: NASA Orbital Debris ProgramESA Space Debris Office.

Kessler Syndrome: Alarming Risk Projections

The Kessler Syndrome is a catastrophic scenario proposed in 1978 by American astrophysicist Donald J. Kessler (1940-). It describes a domino effect in space where the density of orbital debris becomes so high that collisions between objects generate even more fragments, creating an uncontrollable chain reaction. In the long term, some orbits could become unusable for decades, threatening GPS navigation, telecommunications, and Earth observation.

Main consequences of space debris

Table of space debris consequences

Consequences of space debris
ConsequenceAffected areaConcrete examplePotential impact
Risk of collision with active satellitesTelecommunications and navigationInternational Space Station (ISS) must regularly change orbitLoss of GPS, Internet, and telephone services
Increased costs of space missionsSpace industryNeed for reinforced shielding and avoidance maneuversIncreased launch costs and delays
Risk to astronaut safetyManned flightsMicro-debris capable of piercing a habitable moduleLife-threatening danger in low orbit (LEO)
Blockage of certain orbitsEarth observationKessler Syndrome making LEO orbit unusableLoss of access to strategic orbits for decades
Pollution of the space environmentSpace sustainabilityExponential accumulation of fragments >36,000 tracked objectsThreat to the future of space activities
Threat to future generations of satellitesDeploying constellationsStarlink and OneWeb must plan regular maneuversIncreased complexity of space traffic management
Risk of uncontrolled re-entry to EarthGround safetyLong March rocket fragments fell in Africa (2020-2022)Material damage or injury to populations
Scientific disruptionAstronomy and sky observationBright satellites disrupting LSST observations (Vera Rubin Observatory)Decrease in the quality of astronomical surveys
Geopolitical riskInternational securityAnti-satellite tests creating thousands of debrisIncreased tensions between space powers

Proposed solutions to limit the problem

To prevent near-Earth space from becoming a dumping ground, space agencies and companies are working on various solutions. Two main approaches are distinguished: avoiding adding new debris and cleaning up existing debris.

Scenarios for the evolution of space pollution

The future of the orbital environment depends directly on the choices made today regarding debris management. Experts envision three main scenarios:

These scenarios show that inaction greatly increases the risk of uncontrollable escalation. Conversely, rapid and ambitious international cooperation can maintain space as a common good accessible to future generations.

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