Last update: May 21, 2023

Mars: The Conquests and First Human Steps on the Red Planet

Characteristics of Planet Mars

Mars is a fascinating exploration destination and a source of interest in the search for life beyond Earth. Mars is often called "the red planet" due to its distinctive color. The surface of Mars is rich in iron oxide, giving it its characteristic reddish hue.

The Giant Volcanoes of Mars

The planet Mars is home to the tallest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons. Olympus Mons rises about 22 kilometers above the average surface level of Mars. It has a diameter of about 600 kilometers, making it also one of the widest volcanoes.

Ascraeus Mons, Pavonis Mons, and Arsia Mons: These three volcanoes are also known as "Tharsis Montes" and are part of the Tharsis volcanic region on Mars. Ascraeus Mons reaches a height of about 18 kilometers, Pavonis Mons reaches about 14 kilometers, and Arsia Mons reaches about 12 kilometers.

The Gigantic Valles Marineris Canyon

Mars also has the largest canyon known in our solar system, Valles Marineris. This canyon system stretches about 4,000 kilometers in length, which is about four times the length of the Grand Canyon on Earth.

The Martian Polar Ice Caps

Like Earth, Mars has polar ice caps. These polar caps are mainly composed of water ice, but they also contain layers of frozen carbon dioxide, or "dry ice," which undergoes seasonal variations.

The Thin Atmosphere of Mars

The atmosphere of Mars is much thinner than that of Earth, mainly composed of carbon dioxide (CO₂), with small amounts of nitrogen and argon. The atmospheric pressure on Mars is about 0.6% of that on Earth.

Extreme Temperatures

Temperatures on the surface of Mars can vary considerably. Maximum temperatures can reach about 20°C at equatorial latitudes during summer, while minimum temperatures can drop to about -140°C.

Traces of Water in Mars' Past

Robotic missions and observations from Martian orbit have provided compelling evidence of the presence of liquid water in Mars' past. Geological formations such as valleys, riverbeds, and mineral deposits have been interpreted as indicators of a wet past on the planet.

The Moons of Planet Mars

Phobos

Phobos is the larger of Mars' two moons, with an elongated, irregular shape. It orbits at a distance of about 6,000 kilometers from the planet's surface. Phobos is in synchronous rotation with Mars, meaning it always shows the same face to the planet. This moon is covered in impact craters, testifying to its violent history. Its largest crater is called Stickney. Phobos is one of the closest moons to its parent body in the entire solar system.

Deimos

Deimos is the smaller of Mars' two moons. It is also an elongated and irregularly shaped moon, but more regular than Phobos. It orbits at a distance of about 23,500 kilometers from the planet's surface. Deimos is also in synchronous rotation with Mars, always showing the same face to the planet. Its surface is dotted with impact craters, but it is less cratered than Phobos.

Mars: Toward the First Human Steps on the Red Planet

How to Get to Mars?

To go to Mars, you must follow a precise trajectory in space. Scientists use "fuel-efficient" paths called Hohmann transfers, which allow travel with less propulsion. The amount of fuel depends on the mass of the rocket and its departure speed.

The Different Stages of the Journey

A journey to Mars is divided into several stages: lifting off from Earth, setting the right trajectory to Mars, correcting the course en route, entering orbit around Mars or descending directly to the planet, and finally departing for the return. Each stage must be carefully planned and equipped with backup systems in case of problems.

Landing on Mars

Landing on Mars is very complicated. The atmosphere is very thin: it slows down the rocket but is not sufficient to fully brake with parachutes. Missions therefore use a combination: heat shield to withstand the heat, parachutes to slow down, and engines to land gently.

Living on Mars: A Real Challenge

Astronauts will need to be protected from radiation, breathe air maintained at the right pressure and temperature, and have water and oxygen produced on site. Habitats will be pressurized and modular, and some missions plan to use local resources to produce fuel and water.

Communication with Earth can take from 4 to 24 minutes depending on Mars' position, so astronauts will need to be very autonomous. They will have to manage their survival, movement, and scientific experiments almost alone. The European Space Agency and other agencies (Russia, China, India) are planning robotic missions in the 2020s–2030s, but manned missions to Mars are projected for the 2040–2050 horizon.

Table of Space Missions to Planet Mars

Martian Missions: Chronological Inventory, Status, and Comments (1960–2025)
Year	Mission	Country	Agency	Type	Status	Comment
1960	1M No.1	USSR	OKB-1	Flyby	❌ Failure	Lost during launch phase (did not reach orbit).
1960	1M No.2	USSR	OKB-1	Flyby	❌ Failure	Lost during launch phase.
1962	Mars 1 (2MV-4 No.2)	USSR	OKB-1	Flyby	❌ Failure	Lost communication en route to Mars.
1964	Mariner 3	United States	NASA	Flyby	❌ Failure	Fairing not separated → mission lost.
1965	Mariner 4	United States	NASA	Flyby	✅ Success	First close-up images of the Martian surface.
1967	Zond 2	USSR	Lavochkine	Flyby	❌ Failure	Lost communication before flyby.
1969	Mariner 6	United States	NASA	Flyby	✅ Success	Imaging and spectroscopy.
1969	Mariner 7	United States	NASA	Flyby	✅ Success	Complement to Mariner 6 observations.
1969	2M No.521 (1969A)	USSR	Lavochkine / USSR	Orbiter	❌ Failure	Launch failure / did not reach orbit.
1969	2M No.522 (1969B)	USSR	Lavochkine / USSR	Orbiter	❌ Failure	Launch failure.
1971	Mariner 8	United States	NASA	Orbiter	❌ Failure	Launch failure (lost in LEO).
1971	Kosmos 419 (3MS No.170)	USSR	Lavochkine	Orbiter	❌ Failure	Stage problem → did not leave LEO.
1971	Mars 2	USSR	Lavochkine	Orbiter + lander	⚙️ Partial	Orbiter operational; lander crashed on the surface (impact).
1971	Mars 3	USSR	Lavochkine	Orbiter + lander	⚙️ Partial	Landing initially successful, transmission lost ~20 s after.
1971	Mariner 9	United States	NASA	Orbiter	✅ Success	First Martian orbiter; global mapping.
1973	Viking 1	United States	NASA	Orbiter + lander	✅ Success	Landing and scientific operations (biological research).
1976	Viking 2	United States	NASA	Orbiter + lander	✅ Success	Similar to Viking 1; geological and atmospheric analyses.
1988	Phobos 1	USSR	Lavochkine	Orbiter (to Phobos)	❌ Failure	Remote control error → probe lost en route.
1988	Phobos 2	USSR	Lavochkine	Orbiter (to Phobos)	⚙️ Partial	Successful orbital arrival, then loss of contact before final operations. Partial observations made.
1992	Mars Observer	United States	NASA	Orbiter	❌ Failure	Lost contact just before Martian orbit insertion.
1996	Mars Global Surveyor	United States	NASA	Orbiter	✅ Success	Detailed mapping of the surface and atmosphere.
1996	Mars Pathfinder (Sojourner)	United States	NASA	Lander + small rover	✅ Success	Airbag landing demonstrator + mobile exploration (Sojourner).
1998	Nozomi	Japan	ISAS / JAXA	Orbiter	❌ Failure	Trajectory and propulsion problems → did not reach Mars.
1999	Mars Climate Orbiter	United States	NASA	Orbiter	❌ Failure	Unit conversion error (imperial/metric) → incorrect trajectory, lost.
1999	Mars Polar Lander	United States	NASA	Lander	❌ Failure	Lost during landing; probable cause: premature retro-rocket firing.
1999	Beagle 2 (additional mention)	UK / Europe	UK/ESA	Lander	⚙️ Partial	Landing: no initial communication; later found intact (panel/antenna deployment failure).
2001	Mars Odyssey	United States	NASA	Orbiter	✅ Success	Long orbital mission for gamma studies, mineralogy, and communication relay.
2003	Mars Express	Europe	ESA	Orbiter	✅ Success	Geological and atmospheric observation; extended mission.
2003	Beagle 2	UK / Europe	UK/ESA	Lander	⚙️ Partial	Landed intact but did not communicate (antenna deployment failure); later found on the surface.
2003	Spirit (MER-A)	United States	NASA	Rover	✅ Success	Long-duration exploration (2004–2010); discovered evidence of ancient water.
2003	Opportunity (MER-B)	United States	NASA	Rover	✅ Success	Operated 2004–2018; discovered aqueous formations.
2005	Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)	United States	NASA	Orbiter	✅ Success	High-resolution imaging and telecom relay; detailed observations.
2007	Phoenix	United States	NASA	Lander	✅ Success	Study of permafrost in the northern polar region; identification of water ice.
2011	Fobos-Grunt (+ Yinghuo-1)	Russia / China	Roscosmos / CNSA	Sample return / orbiter	❌ Failure	Stuck in Earth orbit after launch; premature re-entry.
2011	Curiosity (MSL)	United States	NASA / JPL	Rover	✅ Success	Analysis of Gale Crater; detection of clement environments and organic compounds.
2013	Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission)	India	ISRO	Orbiter	✅ Success	First Indian success to Mars; scientific and technological orbiter.
2013	MAVEN	United States	NASA	Orbiter	✅ Success	Study of the upper atmosphere and atmospheric losses over time.
2016	ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO)	Europe / Russia	ESA / Roscosmos	Orbiter	✅ Success	Studies trace gases (e.g., methane) and serves as a relay.
2016	Schiaparelli EDM	Europe	ESA	Lander demonstrator	❌ Failure	Impact on the ground: altimetric measurement error and poorly timed retro-rocket deployment.
2018	InSight	United States	NASA	Lander	✅ Success	Seismic measurements and study of the internal structure of Mars.
2020	Hope (Al-Amal)	United Arab Emirates	MBRSC / UAESA	Orbiter	✅ Success	Global climate study and atmospheric profiles.
2020	Tianwen-1	China	CNSA	Orbiter + lander + rover	✅ Success	First complete Chinese success; Zhurong rover operated on the surface.
2020	Perseverance (Mars 2020)	United States	NASA / JPL	Rover	✅ Success	Sample collection (caches) for future return; Ingenuity demonstration.
2021	Zhurong (deployed from Tianwen-1)	China	CNSA	Rover	✅ Success (then inactive)	Exploration of Utopia Planitia region; prolonged inactivity declared in 2022.
2021	Ingenuity	United States	NASA	Helicopter	✅ Success	First powered, controlled flight in the atmosphere of another planet (March).
2024	ESCAPADE (planned)	United States	NASA / APL	Dual orbiter (planned study mission)	In preparation	Mission planned to study Mars in support of future campaigns (2024–2025 window according to planning).
N.B.: This table (non-exhaustive) covers the main historical missions, successful and failed, as well as notable attempts up to 2025. It includes launch attempts, orbiters, landers, rovers, and missions targeting Phobos/Deimos.