Galileo Galilei: The Father of Modern Science and Defender of Heliocentrism

A Tuscan Youth and Early Beginnings

Born on February 15, 1564 in Pisa (Italy), Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was the eldest son of Vincenzo Galilei, a musician and music theorist. His family moved to Florence in 1574 where he began his studies.

Initial education:

• Studied medicine at the University of Pisa (1581-1585) before switching to mathematics
• Discovered the works of Euclid and Archimedes (1583)
• Invented the hydrostatic balance (1586) to measure body density

In 1589, he became professor of mathematics at the University of Pisa, then at Padua in 1592 where he stayed for 18 years.

Revolutionary Discoveries (1609-1613)

In 1609, Galileo learned about the invention of the astronomical telescope in the Netherlands. He built an improved version (20x magnification) and made a series of major discoveries:

1. Celestial Observations

With his telescope, he observed and documented:

• The lunar mountains (December 1609) - proof that the Moon is not a perfect sphere
• The four moons of Jupiter (January 1610) - which he called "Medicean stars" (Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto)
• The phases of Venus (December 1610) - proof of the heliocentric model
• Sunspots (1611) and the Sun's rotation
• The Milky Way composed of individual stars

2. Defense of Heliocentrism

His observations supported Nicolaus Copernicus' (1473-1543) heliocentric theory:

• Publication of Sidereus Nuncius ("The Starry Messenger", March 1610)
• Letter to Christoph Clavius (1611) on sunspots
• Conflict with the Catholic Church on Scripture interpretation

The Conflict with the Church and the 1633 Trial

In 1616, Cardinal Robert Bellarmine declared heliocentrism "formally heretical". Galileo was ordered to stop teaching this doctrine.

Timeline of the conflict:

• 1623: Publication of Il Saggiatore ("The Assayer") on the scientific method
• 1632: Publication of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
  • Comparison of Ptolemaic and Copernican systems
  • Initial approval by the Inquisition (but censored publication)
• June 1633: Trial by the Holy Office
  • Convicted of "vehement suspicion of heresy"
  • Forced to recant heliocentrism
  • House arrest at Arcetri near Florence

The legend that he muttered "E pur si muove" ("And yet it moves") after his recantation is probably apocryphal, but symbolizes his commitment to scientific truth.

Final Years and Scientific Legacy

Despite his condemnation, Galileo continued his work under house arrest:

• 1638: Publication of Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences
  • Foundation of kinematics and strength of materials
  • Study of uniformly accelerated motion and falling bodies
  • Principle of inertia (precursor to Newton)
• Correspondence with Christiaan Huygens and René Descartes
• Progressive loss of sight (completely blind by 1637)

He died on January 8, 1642 in Arcetri, the same year as Johannes Kepler. His official rehabilitation by the Catholic Church only came in... 1992 (350 years after his condemnation).

Major Scientific Contributions

Galileo revolutionized several fields:

Sources: Museo Galileo (Florence), Vatican Archives (1633 trial), Bibliothèque nationale de France (digitized works), SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System.