Free-floating planets, also known as rogue or orphan planets, are massive objects comparable to giant planets but do not orbit any star. They drift freely through interstellar space, illuminated only by the faint radiation of the galactic environment or their own residual heat. These solitary worlds challenge the paradigm of star-centered planetary systems, such as our Solar System. Their existence was first postulated in the 1990s, but it is only recently, thanks to techniques like gravitational microlensing, that we have been able to detect them directly.
Free-floating planets, also called rogue or orphan planets, are massive objects comparable to giant planets but do not orbit any star. They drift freely through interstellar space, illuminated only by the faint radiation of the galactic environment or their own residual heat. These solitary worlds challenge the paradigm of star-centered planetary systems, such as our Solar System. Their existence was first postulated in the 1990s, but it is only recently, thanks to techniques like gravitational microlensing, that we have been able to detect them directly.
Two main scenarios are considered to explain the presence of these rogue exoplanets: in situ formation within a molecular cloud, similar to that of a star, or gravitational ejection from a young planetary system. In the latter case, chaotic dynamical interactions, especially in multiple systems, can lead to the expulsion of a planet. Numerical simulations show that a large percentage of planets formed in unstable multi-planetary systems can be ejected into interstellar space. These planets can retain a dense atmosphere, temporarily sustained by internal heat (radioactivity, gravitational contraction), or even by a subsurface ocean in extreme cases.
Some free-floating planets can be confused with brown dwarfs, especially in the mass range between 10 and 20 Jupiter masses, where internal mechanisms cannot be detected without fine spectroscopic data. The distinction is based more on formation history than on mass, but this history is often inferred rather than observed.
When a free-floating planet is detected by gravitational microlensing or far-infrared observation, its estimated mass can be around 10–20 Jupiter masses. In this range:
Therefore, without precise spectra or fusion signatures, it is difficult to make the distinction.
Detecting these objects is extremely difficult because they reflect no starlight and emit only weakly in the infrared. The most promising method is gravitational microlensing: when a free-floating planet passes in front of a background star, it acts as a gravitational lens, temporarily amplifying the star's light. Projects such as MOA (Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics) and OGLE (Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment) have identified several candidates. In 2021, a study led by Przemek Mróz suggested that there could be up to 50 billion of these rogue planets in the Milky Way—potentially more than stars.
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