Argon was discovered through a meticulous investigation of an apparently insignificant anomaly. In 1892, the British physicist Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt, 1842–1919) observed that nitrogen extracted from the air was slightly denser (about 0.5%) than nitrogen obtained by chemical decomposition of nitrogen compounds. Intrigued by this difference, he collaborated with the chemist William Ramsay (1852–1916). In 1894, after methodically removing oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor from the air, they isolated an unknown residual gas that did not react with any other element. They named this gas argon (from the Greek argos = inactive, lazy) due to its absolute chemical inertness. This discovery revolutionized chemistry by revealing the existence of an entire unsuspected family of elements: the noble gases. Rayleigh and Ramsay received the Nobel Prizes in Physics and Chemistry, respectively, in 1904 for this discovery.
Argon (symbol Ar, atomic number 18) is a noble gas in group 18 (formerly group VIII or 0) of the periodic table. Its atom has 18 protons, 18 electrons, and usually 22 neutrons in its most abundant isotope (\(\,^{40}\mathrm{Ar}\)). Three stable isotopes exist: argon-36 (\(\,^{36}\mathrm{Ar}\)), argon-38 (\(\,^{38}\mathrm{Ar}\)), and argon-40 (\(\,^{40}\mathrm{Ar}\)).
At room temperature, argon is a monatomic gas (Ar), colorless, odorless, tasteless, and completely chemically inert under normal conditions. It is about 1.4 times denser than air (density ≈ 1.784 g/L at 0 °C). Melting point of argon: 83.81 K (−189.34 °C). Boiling point: 87.302 K (−185.848 °C). Argon has a complete outer electron shell (configuration 3s² 3p⁶), giving it exceptional chemical stability. It forms virtually no stable chemical compounds under normal conditions, although a few transient compounds have been observed in laboratories at very low temperatures.
| Isotope / Notation | Protons (Z) | Neutrons (N) | Atomic mass (u) | Natural abundance | Half-life / Stability | Decay / Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Argon-40 — \(\,^{40}\mathrm{Ar}\,\) | 18 | 22 | 39.962383 u | ≈ 99.60% | Stable | Ultra-dominant isotope in Earth's atmosphere, produced by the radioactive decay of potassium-40. |
| Argon-36 — \(\,^{36}\mathrm{Ar}\) | 18 | 18 | 35.967546 u | ≈ 0.334% | Stable | Primordial isotope; important geochemical tracer. |
| Argon-38 — \(\,^{38}\mathrm{Ar}\) | 18 | 20 | 37.962732 u | ≈ 0.063% | Stable | Rare isotope; used in geological research. |
| Argon-39 — \(\,^{39}\mathrm{Ar}\) | 18 | 21 | 38.964313 u | Cosmogenic trace | 269 years | Radioactive β\(^-\) decaying into potassium-39. Used to date polar ice and groundwater. |
| Argon-37 — \(\,^{37}\mathrm{Ar}\) | 18 | 19 | 36.966776 u | Non-natural | 35.04 days | Radioactive by electron capture giving chlorine-37. Used in neutrino detection. |
| Other isotopes — \(\,^{30}\mathrm{Ar}\) to \(\,^{53}\mathrm{Ar}\) | 18 | 12 — 35 | — (variable) | Non-natural | Milliseconds to minutes | Very unstable isotopes produced artificially; experimental nuclear physics. |
N.B. :
Electron shells: How electrons organize around the nucleus.
Argon has 18 electrons distributed across three electron shells. Its full electronic configuration is: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶, or simplified as: [Ne] 3s² 3p⁶. This configuration can also be written as: K(2) L(8) M(8).
K Shell (n=1): contains 2 electrons in the 1s subshell. This inner shell is complete and highly stable.
L Shell (n=2): contains 8 electrons distributed as 2s² 2p⁶. This shell is also complete, forming a noble gas configuration (neon).
M Shell (n=3): contains 8 electrons distributed as 3s² 3p⁶. The 3s and 3p orbitals are completely filled, providing maximum stability. The 3d orbitals remain empty.
Argon has 8 electrons in its outer shell (3s² 3p⁶), forming a saturated electronic configuration. This configuration explains its exceptional chemical properties:
Argon neither loses nor gains electrons under normal conditions, which explains the absence of stable oxidation states.
The complete valence shell gives argon almost total chemical inertness, hence its classification among the noble gases (or rare gases).
Although argon compounds have been synthesized in the laboratory under extreme conditions, argon forms virtually no stable chemical compounds under ordinary conditions.
The electronic configuration of argon, with all its electron shells complete, makes it a reference noble gas. This structure gives it characteristic properties: exceptional chemical stability (argon is one of the most inert elements), very high ionization energy (it is extremely difficult to remove an electron), and total absence of reactivity under normal conditions. Argon does not form chemical bonds because its saturated valence shell represents an optimal energy state. This chemical inertness makes argon an ideal gas for creating protective atmospheres in metallurgy, welding, and in electric light bulbs. The argon configuration [Ar] serves as a reference for describing the electronic configuration of subsequent elements in the periodic table.
Argon is chemically inert under almost all conditions. Its saturated outer electron shell makes it extremely stable and non-reactive. Unlike neighboring elements chlorine and potassium, which readily form compounds, argon does not participate in any chemical reactions under normal conditions. This absolute inertness makes argon the ideal protective gas for many industrial processes. In laboratories, at very low temperatures and under intense UV irradiation, a few unstable compounds have been synthesized, such as argon hydrofluoride (HArF), which decomposes rapidly above 40 K. These exotic compounds have no practical application but are of theoretical interest for understanding the limits of chemical bonding.
Argon is remarkably abundant: it constitutes about 0.934% of Earth's atmosphere by volume, making it the third most abundant atmospheric gas after nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). This proportion represents about 66 trillion tons of argon in Earth's atmosphere. Paradoxically, despite this abundance, argon remained undetected until 1894 due to its total inertness. Almost all atmospheric argon is argon-40, produced by the radioactive decay of potassium-40 (⁴⁰K) in Earth's crust over billions of years. Industrial argon is produced by fractional distillation of liquid air, a process that also separates nitrogen and oxygen. Global argon production exceeds 1 million tons per year. Argon is relatively inexpensive due to its atmospheric abundance and the efficiency of separation processes.
The accumulation of argon-40 in rocks through the decay of potassium-40 is the basis of the potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating method, one of the most important in geochronology. This method allows dating volcanic and metamorphic rocks from a few thousand years to several billion years. Potassium-40 decays with a half-life of 1.25 billion years into argon-40 (electron capture) and calcium-40 (β⁻ decay). The gaseous argon produced can escape from minerals at high temperatures but is trapped during cooling and crystallization. By measuring the ⁴⁰Ar/⁴⁰K ratio in a mineral, the time elapsed since its last melting or metamorphism can be determined. The argon-argon (⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar) variant, more precise, is widely used to date major geological events and Earth's evolution.
In the primordial universe, argon was virtually absent. Argon-36 and argon-38 are produced by nucleosynthesis in massive stars during the fusion of oxygen and silicon, then dispersed by supernovae. Argon has been detected in some planetary nebulae and supernova remnants. On Earth, the overwhelming dominance of argon-40 (99.6%) contrasts sharply with the isotopic composition of solar and meteoritic argon, where argon-36 dominates. This difference reveals that terrestrial argon is primarily radiogenic (produced by radioactive decay in the crust) rather than primordial. The analysis of argon isotopic ratios in meteorites and planetary samples provides crucial clues about the formation and evolution of the solar system. Mars has an atmosphere containing about 1.6% argon, mainly argon-40, evidence of the planet's past geological activity.
N.B.:
The argon we breathe every moment actually comes from the depths of the Earth. Every liter of air we inhale contains about 9 milliliters of argon (0.934%), more than carbon dioxide (0.04%). This argon is almost entirely argon-40, continuously produced for billions of years by the radioactive decay of potassium-40 in the rocks of Earth's crust and mantle. Argon slowly escapes from rocks and accumulates in the atmosphere, where it persists indefinitely because, being chemically inert, it cannot be consumed by any biological or geochemical process. Thus, every breath contains argon atoms that were once trapped deep within our planet, silently testifying to Earth's radioactive clock.
