Dwarf Planets: These Forgotten Worlds of the Solar System

Size of Dwarf Planets compared to Earth — Representation of the main dwarf planets of the Solar System (Eris, Pluto, Makemake, Haumea, Sedna) compared to Earth and the Moon.
Image source: astronoo.com (new window)

Scientific Summary

The article examines the astronomical classification of dwarf planets according to the IAU criteria (2006): orbit around the Sun, spherical shape due to hydrostatic equilibrium, and uncleared orbit. To date, only five objects are officially recognized by the IAU as dwarf planets: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris. It details their physical and orbital characteristics, their distribution in the Kuiper Belt, the scattered disc, or the asteroid belt, as well as about ten plausible candidates not yet officialized. The article highlights the role of these bodies as witnesses to the formation of the Solar System and discusses particular cases like Ceres and Hygiea, whose status could evolve.

What is a dwarf planet and why is astronomical classification a blurry frontier?

The central question the article poses is to define what a dwarf planet is and to understand why this classification represents a moving conceptual frontier in astronomy. The direct answer lies in the 2006 decision of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), which established three criteria for a body to be a planet: orbit the Sun, have sufficient mass to assume a spherical shape (hydrostatic equilibrium), and have "cleared" its orbit of other debris. Dwarf planets meet the first two criteria but fail the third. This definition, while precise in principle, is difficult to apply in practice because hydrostatic equilibrium is not always easy to verify from Earth, and because the IAU has so far only ruled on five objects: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris. About ten other bodies (Gonggong, Quaoar, Sedna, Orcus, or the asteroid Hygiea) are considered by most astronomers as likely meeting the criteria, but have not received official status due to a lack of sufficiently precise observations or formal consensus within the IAU. The article explores this frontier by presenting a comparative table of the main candidates and discussing cases like Ceres and Hygiea. Classification therefore depends not only on physical criteria, but also on our ability to measure them and on an institutional process that can be slow to evolve, making this demarcation as scientific as it is conventional.

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Definition of a dwarf planet according to the IAU

According to the International Astronomical Union (IAU), a dwarf planet is a celestial body that meets the following conditions: it orbits the Sun, has sufficient mass for its gravity to overcome rigid body forces, giving it a nearly spherical shape (hydrostatic equilibrium), has not cleared its orbit of other debris, and is not a satellite of another planet.

The forgotten ones of the solar system

An intermediate and contested status

Dwarf planets occupy a unique place in the hierarchy of celestial bodies. Defined by the International Astronomical Union in 2006, they orbit the Sun, have sufficient mass to be spherical, but have not "cleared" their orbit. This intermediate status between major planets and small bodies sometimes makes their classification contested, as in the emblematic case of Pluto. To date, only five objects have officially received this status from the IAU: Ceres (2006), Pluto (2006), Eris (2006), and then Makemake and Haumea (2008).

Distribution and scientific importance

Most dwarf planets reside in the Kuiper Belt or beyond (like Eris), but Ceres, the only one to date, is located in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. They play an essential role in understanding planetary formation and the initial conditions of the solar system. Their composition, often rich in ices, silicates, and organic compounds, makes them valuable targets for space exploration.

Comparative table of the main dwarf planets and candidates

Only Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris are officially recognized dwarf planets by the IAU. The other objects in the table below, although widely considered by astronomers as likely meeting the required physical criteria, have not yet received individual official status; they are plausible candidates.

Characteristics of the main dwarf planets and candidates of the solar system
Name	IAU Status	Diameter	Average distance from the Sun	Location	Orbit type	Discovery date
Pluto	Official	2,377 km	5.91 billion km	Kuiper Belt	Resonant (3:2 with Neptune)	1930
Eris	Official	2,326 km	10.12 billion km	Scattered disc	SDO (eccentric & inclined orbit)	2005
Haumea	Official	~2,322 × 1,704 × 1,138 km (very elongated)	6.45 billion km	Kuiper Belt	Resonant (12:7)	2004
Gonggong	Candidate	1,230 km	10.67 billion km	Scattered disc	SDO	2007
Makemake	Official	1,434 km	6.85 billion km	Kuiper Belt	Cold classical	2005
Quaoar	Candidate	1,110 km	6.43 billion km	Kuiper Belt	Hot classical	2002
2002 MS₄	Candidate	934 km	6.41 billion km	Kuiper Belt	Classical	2002
Ceres	Official	940 km	414 million km	Asteroid belt	Stable and circular orbit	1801
Sedna	Candidate	~995 km (poorly constrained)	13.6 billion km	Inner Oort Cloud	Detached (Detached TNO)	2003
Orcus	Candidate	910 km	5.87 billion km	Kuiper Belt	Resonant (3:2 with Neptune)	2004
Hygiea	Candidate (2019)	~430 km	470 million km	Asteroid belt	Stable and circular orbit	1849
Salacia	Candidate	850 km	6.48 billion km	Kuiper Belt	Hot classical	2004
Varda	Candidate	740 km	6.69 billion km	Kuiper Belt	Classical	2003
Ixion	Candidate	620 km	5.91 billion km	Kuiper Belt	Resonant (3:2 with Neptune)	2001
Varuna	Candidate	668 km	6.41 billion km	Kuiper Belt	Hot classical	2000

The case of Ceres and the asteroid belt

Ceres: the first dwarf planet discovered

Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt located between Mars and Jupiter. With a diameter of about 940 km, it has sufficient mass and gravity to maintain an almost spherical shape, characteristic of hydrostatic equilibrium. This is why the International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially classified it as a dwarf planet in 2006. Its stable position in the asteroid belt and its orbit around the Sun confirm this unique status in this region of the Solar System.

Haumea: the strangest dwarf planet

An elongated shape and an unexpected ring

Haumea deserves a special mention. Its shape is far from spherical: its extremely rapid rotation (barely 3.9 hours, one of the fastest known for a body of this size) has stretched it into a highly elongated triaxial ellipsoid, whose major axis reaches about 2,322 km — comparable to Pluto's diameter — while its minor axis measures only about 1,138 km. A stellar occultation observed in January 2017 by a network of European telescopes refined these dimensions and revealed, to everyone's surprise, the presence of a ring around Haumea: an unprecedented discovery for such a small body, previously a phenomenon known only around giant planets and a few centaurs like Chariklo. This ring, about 70 km wide, is coplanar with Haumea's equator and the orbit of its largest moon, Hi'iaka.

Hygiea, the unexpected candidate

An asteroid that meets all criteria

Long considered an ordinary asteroid, the fourth most massive object in the main belt after Ceres, Vesta, and Pallas, Hygiea delivered a surprise in 2019. Very high angular resolution observations obtained with the SPHERE instrument on ESO's Very Large Telescope, led by a team headed by Pierre Vernazza, revealed a quasi-spherical shape devoid of any large impact basins, with a sphericity index close to that of Ceres. With a diameter of about 430 km, Hygiea would thus meet the four IAU criteria and could become, if its status is officially recognized one day, the smallest dwarf planet in the Solar System. Simulations suggest that its rounded shape and the large family of asteroids accompanying it would result from a major collision about 2 billion years ago, which would have completely fragmented and then reformed the parent body.

Why aren't Vesta and Pallas (yet) dwarf planets?

The case of Vesta illustrates well the subtlety of the hydrostatic equilibrium criterion: its mass would a priori be sufficient, but its southern hemisphere is deeply deformed by the gigantic Rheasilvia impact basin, which breaks its expected spherical symmetry. Vesta is therefore generally excluded from lists of serious candidates and remains classified as a differentiated protoplanet rather than a dwarf planet. Pallas, for its part, also has an irregular shape, riddled with craters, which deviates noticeably from hydrostatic equilibrium. Hygiea thus appears as the strongest candidate in the main belt after Ceres. In any case, none of these bodies has yet been officially reclassified by the IAU, which has only ruled case by case for the five currently recognized dwarf planets.

References

Ortiz, J. L. et al. (2017). The size, shape, density and ring of the dwarf planet Haumea from a stellar occultation. Nature, 550, 219–223. DOI: 10.1038/nature24051 (new window)
Vernazza, P. et al. (2019). A basin-free spherical shape as an outcome of a giant impact on asteroid Hygiea. Nature Astronomy, 4, 136–141. DOI: 10.1038/s41550-019-0915-8 (new window)
NASA Science. Dwarf Planets. science.nasa.gov (new window)
International Astronomical Union. IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes. iau.org (new window)
Minor Planet Center. List of Trans-Neptunian Objects. minorplanetcenter.net (new window)
JPL Small-Body Database. ssd.jpl.nasa.gov (new window)

FAQ: Everything you need to know about dwarf planets

What is the fundamental difference between a planet and a dwarf planet according to the IAU?

The key difference is orbit clearing. A planet has sufficient mass to gravitationally dominate its orbit and eliminate or capture small bodies nearby. A dwarf planet, like Pluto, shares its orbit with other objects (like those in the Kuiper Belt) and has not performed this clearing.

How many dwarf planets does the IAU officially recognize, and why so few?

The IAU officially recognizes only five dwarf planets: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris. This small number does not mean that others do not exist: many astronomers, including Mike Brown (co-discoverer of Eris), estimate that a hundred, or even several thousand, objects in the scattered disc and the Oort cloud could meet the criteria. But the IAU has only ruled case by case for these five objects, due to a lack of sufficiently precise measurements of the shape of other candidates and a systematic reclassification process.

Why is Ceres considered a dwarf planet even though it is in the asteroid belt?

Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt, with a diameter of about 940 km. Its mass is sufficient for its own gravity to give it a spherical shape (hydrostatic equilibrium), which fulfills the second IAU criterion. However, as it shares its orbit with thousands of other asteroids, it has not "cleared" its orbital neighborhood, which places it in the category of dwarf planets.

What are the other candidates for classification as a dwarf planet in the future?

In the asteroid belt, Hygiea is today the most serious candidate: observations from 2019 with the VLT showed that it is almost as spherical as Ceres. Vesta and Pallas, on the other hand, are generally excluded because their shape, deformed by significant impacts, deviates too much from hydrostatic equilibrium. Beyond Neptune, about ten objects like Gonggong, Quaoar, Sedna, or Orcus are widely considered dwarf planets by the scientific community, but their official reclassification will depend on a more precise confirmation of their shape and a possible revision of the list by the IAU.