Last updated June 26, 2015

Special Relativity: The Beginning of a New Physics

Illustration of the concept of warped spacetime

A Non-Absolute Spacetime

Before Einstein, space and time were considered absolute entities, independent of the observer's motion. In 1905, Albert Einstein introduced special relativity, overturning this Newtonian conception. His theory is based on two fundamental postulates: the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames, and the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the speed of the source or the observer.

These two hypotheses lead to surprising consequences: time does not flow the same way for all observers, lengths contract with speed, and simultaneity becomes relative. This is not just a change of frame, but a complete overhaul of our perception of the universe.

Time Dilation and Length Contraction

The phenomenon of time dilation predicts that if a clock moves at a speed close to that of light, it will be seen by a stationary observer as ticking more slowly. This slowing down of time is quantified by the Lorentz factor:

$$ \gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - \frac{v^2}{c^2}}} $$

where $ v $ is the speed of the object and $ c $ is the speed of light. At 90% of $ c $, $ \gamma \approx 2.3 $, which means that time passes more than twice as slowly aboard the moving object.

Conversely, for an observer in a rapidly moving frame, lengths in the direction of motion contract. This is the length contraction, another relativistic effect, also measured by the Lorentz factor.

An Unsuspected Temporal Elasticity

At first glance, time seems universal and rigid: a second is a second, no matter the observer. However, special relativity shows that this rigidity is only an illusion at low speeds. The Lorentz factor increases slowly as the speed $ v $ increases, then diverges rapidly as it approaches $ c $. To obtain a time dilation factor as modest as $ \gamma = 2.3 $, one must already reach 90% of the speed of light. This shows that time is remarkably stable at ordinary speeds but becomes extremely malleable in relativistic regimes.

A Slow Rise of Relativistic Effects

This behavior is explained by the geometric structure of spacetime. At low speeds ($ v \ll c $), the term $ v^2 / c^2 $ is very small, so $ \gamma \approx 1 $, and relativistic effects are negligible. It is only beyond $ 0.8c $ that time dilation becomes noticeable. For example:

At $ v = 0.1c $, $ \gamma \approx 1.005 $
At $ v = 0.5c $, $ \gamma \approx 1.15 $
At $ v = 0.9c $, $ \gamma \approx 2.29 $
At $ v = 0.99c $, $ \gamma \approx 7.09 $
At $ v = 0.999999c $, $ \gamma \approx 707 $

The rise is initially slow, then becomes explosive as it approaches $ c $. This behavior is a direct consequence of the hyperbolic nature of the light cone, which structures spacetime in special relativity.

The Light Cone and the Deformation of Time

The new structure of Minkowski spacetime, used in special relativity, has a metric where the invariant interval is: $ s^2 = c^2t^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2 $

This metric separates events into three categories: those inside the light cone (causally reachable), on the cone (light limit), and outside the cone (not causally connected). When an observer moves at high speed, their time axis tilts in the Minkowski diagram, reducing the time component visible to a stationary observer. Time dilates: this is a geometric consequence, not a "mechanical" effect.

Relative Simultaneity and Causality

Special relativity also introduces a counterintuitive notion: two events that seem simultaneous in one frame may not be in another. This relativity of simultaneity directly results from the invariance of the speed of light.

Despite these effects, special relativity respects causality. No signal or particle can travel faster than light, ensuring that causes always precede their effects. This guarantees the logical consistency of the physical world, even if it is no longer absolute.

The Equation $ E = mc^2 $: A Geometric Consequence

Einstein's famous equation $ E = mc^2 $ is not a postulate but a direct consequence of the geometry of spacetime in special relativity. It all starts with the fundamental invariant of the theory: the spacetime interval between two events, defined by: $ s^2 = c^2 t^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2 $

This interval is constant for all inertial observers. It structures spacetime as a pseudo-Euclidean manifold, at the heart of Minkowski's formulation.

From the Position Four-Vector to Energy

We define the position four-vector $ X^\mu = (ct, x, y, z) $, whose derivative with respect to proper time $ \tau $ gives the velocity four-vector: $ U^\mu = \frac{dX^\mu}{d\tau} = \gamma (c, v_x, v_y, v_z) \quad \text{with} \quad \gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - \frac{v^2}{c^2}}} $

By multiplying by the mass $ m $, we obtain the energy-momentum four-vector: $ P^\mu = m U^\mu = \left( \frac{E}{c}, \vec{p} \right) $

This vector has a relativistic invariant norm: $ P^\mu P_\mu = \left( \frac{E}{c} \right)^2 - p^2 = m^2 c^2 $

Which gives the fundamental relation between energy, momentum, and mass: $ E^2 = p^2 c^2 + m^2 c^4 $

Rest Energy: Mass as Condensed Energy

If the body is at rest ($ \vec{p} = 0 $), we directly obtain: $ E = mc^2 $

This equation expresses the rest mass energy, the intrinsic energy of any body, even when immobile. It reveals that mass is a concentrated form of energy, which explains:

the release of energy in nuclear reactions,
matter-antimatter annihilation,
the energetic stability of elementary particles.

Thus, $ E = mc^2 $ naturally results from the conservation of the Minkowski invariant and the structure of the energy-momentum four-vector. It is a profound manifestation of the geometric nature of relativistic physics.

Energy and Mass are Linked

The famous equation $ E = mc^2 $ naturally follows from special relativity. It expresses the equivalence between mass and energy: a mass at rest possesses intrinsic energy proportional to the square of the speed of light. This relation has major implications in nuclear physics and cosmology.

Thus, special relativity is not a mathematical curiosity: it is the basis of modern technologies such as GPS, which must account for these effects to function correctly, and it paves the way for general relativity, which integrates gravitation into this new geometry of spacetime.